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Data Use and Formative Assessment
AACC Resources
Resources developed by the AACC to help regional centers and states improve their assessments and accountability systems.
Data Use
- AACC Data Use Web Site
The AACC Data Use Web Site, developed to help regional centers, states, and other education agencies improve their use of data and increase student achievement, contains 4 key components:
- A guide for the effective use of data to improve educational decision-making
- A map of key capacities needed at each educational level to support effective data use
- Standards and criteria for evaluating data tools and selecting diagnostic assessments
- A comprehensive listing of research-based guidance on effective data use
The Assessment and Accountability Comprehensive Center implements, evaluates, and improves assessment and accountability systems so that states and districts can reach the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) goal of academic proficiency for all students.
Contact Information
Margaret Heritage (Data Use)
310-794-5680
mheritag@ucla.eduRon Dietel (Communications)
310-794-9168
dietel@cse.ucla.edu
Draft Framework for Developing High Quality English Language Proficiency (ELP) Standards and Assessments (PDF)
The draft Framework for Developing High Quality English Language Proficiency (ELP) Standards and Assessments was developed in response to requests from States for assistance from the U.S. Department of Education on how to evaluate the technical quality of their ELP standards and assessments.
The U.S. Department of Education invites comments on this draft Framework. Comments can be submitted via the following link: lepframework@aacompcenter.org
Formative Assessment
New York Formative Assessment Technical Assistance Study
The NY Formative Assessment Technical Assistance Study is a AACC pilot study that weds expertise at the national, regional, state, and district levels. Find out more...
New York Formative Assessment Technical Assistance Project - Lessons Learned
Our interagency collaboration resulted in a number of important lessons that may benefit others who are working to implement formative assessments on a broad basis. Find out more...
Reviewed Resources
Includes knowledge (frequently research reports), products and tools, guidance, and services that are recommended by an expert committee. The rating form and method are aligned to ratings from other comprehensive content centers. A comprehensive glossary provides many additional details about the AACC rating process.
Data Use
Implementing data-informed decision making in schools: Teacher access, supports and use
Author/Provider:U.S. Department of Education, Office of Planning, Evaluation and Policy Development
Resource Type: Knowledge
Cost: Free
Length: 110 pages
Website: USDOE Office of Planning, Evaluation & Policy
Resource Summary: This report describes the student data systems available to school staff members, how school staff members are using the systems and other forms of student data, teachers' understanding of data displays and data interpretation issues, and the supports and challenges for school-level use of student data in planning and implementing instruction. This report draws on case study findings in nine purposively sampled districts, nominated on the basis of the strength of their data use activities. Researchers interviewed district staff members as well as principals and teachers from three schools within each district. In addition, a set of scenarios involving hypothetical student data were presented to teachers at each school to probe their understanding of student data. In addition to case study data, this report also draws on data from secondary sources (spring 2007 district and teacher surveys from the U.S. Department of Education's National Educational Technology Trends Study).
Full Citation: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Planning, Evaluation and Policy Development. (2009). Implementing data-informed decision making in schools: Teacher access, supports and use. Washington, D.C.: Author.
Selected Reviewer Comments: “Well worth the time to read this document for anyone working in the data use field, especially at the state or district level." "Important and relevant resource to be included in the AACC website." "Provides update information on the status of data use, and the challenges districts and schools face, as well as successful strategies for developing data use capacity."
The data-informed district: A district-wide evaluation of data use in the Natrona County School District
Author/Provider: Wayman, J. C., Cho, V., & Johnston, M. T., The University of Texas at Austin
Resource Type: Knowledge
Cost: Free
Length: 81 pages
Website: http://edadmin.edb.utexas.edu/datause/Wayman_data_use_evaluation.pdf (PDF)
Resource Summary: Wayman, Cho, & Johnston describe a data-informed district as one where educational data inform every decision and are used by every educator at every level. In such a district, common understandings exist about the nature of learning, the nature of teaching, and how data may best inform these charges. This report outlines the findings and recommendations from this evaluation. Using interview data from 128 individuals and survey data from 435 individuals, Wayman, Cho, & Johnston thoroughly examine data use, data practices, opinions, and technological resources at every level of the district. These detailed findings are used to outline a series of detailed recommendations for the evaluated District to efficiently become a data-informed district.
Full Citation: Wayman, J. C., Cho, V., & Johnston, M. T. (2007). The data-informed district: A district-wide evaluation of data use in the Natrona County School District. Austin: The University of Texas.
Selected Reviewer Comments: "Very important resource for any district considering integrating its data systems." "This should be a must read for state and district administrators involved in data use of any type. Highly recommended reading. Very well done and extremely informative."
Data Wise: A step-by-step guide to using assessment to improve teaching and learning
Author/Provider: Boudett, K.P., City E.A., & Murnane, R.J., Harvard Education Publishing Group
Resource Type: Product or Tool
Cost: $29.95
Length: 212 pages
Website: http://www.hepg.org/hep/book/53
Resource Summary: Data Wise provides a toolbox of information pertaining to data-use and assessment practice. Following the "Data Wise Improvement Process," the book provides strategies to help schools organize and use data to improve student learning. The strategy can help organize assessment projects for people with various levels of experience with the topic (p. 5).
Full Citation: Boudett, K.P., City E.A., & Murnane, R.J. (Eds.). (2005). Data wise: A step-by-step guide to using assessment to improve teaching and learning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Publishing Group.
Selected Reviewer Comments: "Very accessible, full of extremely valuable information. Is definitely a step-by-step resource that can be used to build capacity for data use at the local level."
Effective Use of Electronic Data Systems: A Readiness Guide for School and District Leaders
Author/Provider: Learning Point Associates and the Educational Service Alliance (ESA) of the Midwest
Resource Type: Product or Tool
Cost: Free
Length: 43 pages
Website: http://www.pdaonline.org/resources/ReadinessGuideSept2006.pdf
Resource Summary: This resource provides guidance for school and district leaders to use electronic data systems. There are three sections to the tool: "(1) Tools for District and School Leaders, (2) Tools for Facilitators, and (3) Resources" (p. 4). The document organizes the tools for school level electronic data systems "around eight discussion elementsóWill, Scope, Risk, Readiness, Information Quality, System Quality, Impact, and Cost" (p. 4). Also provides a catalog of available data sources.
Full Citation: Learning Point Associates & the Educational Service Alliance (ESA) of the Midwest. (2006). Effective Use of Electronic Data Systems: A Readiness Guide for School and District Leaders. Naperville, IL.: Learning Point Associates.
Selected Reviewer Comments: "This is a useful tool which will be helpful to districts and schools in planning to use data tools."
Electronic Learning Assessment Resources
Author/Provider: Cradler, J. California Learning Resource Network
Cost: Free
Website: http://www.clrn.org/elar
Resource Summary: Focusing on data-driven decision-making and data literacy, this website facilitates searching for appropriate electronic learning assessment resources. The website reviews: data warehouses, data analysis and reporting systems, curriculum management systems, instruction and practice systems, and assessment and diagnostic systems (website).
Full Citation: Cradler, J. (2006). Electronic Learning Assessment Resources (ELAR): California Learning Resource Network. Retrieved July 25, 2006, from website.
Selected Reviewer Comments: "As SEA and district personnel become more interested in electronic learning assessment resources related to local accountability, diagnostic and benchmark assessments, this site coordinates the most information I have seen to date in one location"
Forum Guide to Building a Culture of Quality Data: A School & District Resource
Author/Provider: National Forum on Education Statistics
Resource Type: Guidance
Cost: Free
Length: 44 pages
Website: http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2005/2005801.pdf
Resource Summary: Quality data, like quality students, come from schools. Recently, there has been a growing awareness that effective teaching, efficient schools, and quality data are related. The quality of information used to develop an instructional plan, run a school, plan a budget, or place a student in a class depends upon the school data clerk, teacher, counselor, and/or school secretary who enter data into a computer. This document offers recommendations to staff in schools and school districts about best practices for data entry ó getting things right at the source.
Full Citation: National Forum on Education Statistics. (2004). Forum Guide to Building a Culture of Quality Data: A School & District Resource (NFES 2005-801). U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.
Selected Reviewer Comments: "I think this would be a very useful resource since it gives simple, easy to follow guidance about data use from every level (teacher to superintendent)." "Very detailed and comprehensive guidance for a variety of stakeholders." "I believe that it will have a positive effect on learning because accurate and timely data are key to the ability of administratorsí and teachersí ability to make effective decisions about student learning." "Very thorough, detailed and clear guidance that provides valuable information to all levels of the system for improved data quality."
Improving teaching and learning with data-based decisions: Asking the right questions and acting on the answers
Author/Provider: Protheroe, N., Educational Research Service
Resource Type: Guidance
Cost: Free
Length: 11 pages
Website: http://www.ers.org/spectrum/sum01a.htm
Resource Summary: Discusses how to make instructional improvement decisions using data-based assessment. Describes three steps in using data-based assessment: developing the right questions, collecting and analyzing the data, and providing staff support to make effective use of the data. Effective use of assessment data requires both quality data and sufficient time and expertise to analyze it.
Full Citation: Protheroe, N. (2001). Improving teaching and learning with data-based decisions: Asking the right questions and acting on the answers. Arlington, VA: Educational Research Service.
Selected Reviewer Comments: The resource adds value to the field by "pulling research and approach to using data into one succinct overview of using data approach." "I appreciated this succinct and research referenced (outcomes related) outline that provided a guide and linked the appropriate use of assessments and assessment data to district user data needs and purposes." "Its content and brevity make this a highly valuable resource."
Measuring how benchmark assessments affect student achievement
Author/Provider: Henderson, S., Petrosino, A., Guckenburg, S., & Hamilton, S., U.S. Department of Education
Resource Type: Knowledge
Cost: Free
Length: 47 pages
Website: http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/edlabs/projects/project.asp?id=43
Resource Summary: This report examines a Massachusetts pilot program for quarterly benchmark exams in middle-school mathematics, finding that program schools do not show greater gains in student achievement after a year. But that finding might reflect limited data rather than ineffective benchmark assessments.
Full Citation: Henderson, S., Petrosino, A., Guckenburg, S., & Hamilton, S. (2007) Measuring how benchmark assessments affect student achievement (Issues & Answers Report, REL 2007-No. 039). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Regional Educational Laboratory Northeast and Islands. Retrieved from http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/edlabs
State Education Data Systems That Increase Learning and Improve Accountability
Author/Provider: Palaich, R.M., Good, D.G., & van der Ploeg, A., Learning Points Associates
Resource Type: Guidance
Cost: Free
Length: 11 Pages
Website: http://www.ncrel.org/policy/pubs/pdfs/pivol16.pdf
Resource Summary: This policy brief provides suggestions for dealing with data systems for state education systems. Three key recommendations of this study are: "address the key tasks associated with effective use of education data, create an education data oversight commission in each state, and develop common data standards, data-collection, guidelines, and data-management practices" (p. 9-10).
Full Citation: Palaich, R.M., Good, D.G., & van der Ploeg, A. (2004, June). State Education Data Systems that Increase Learning and Improve Accountability. Learning Points Associatesí Policy Issues, 16, 1-11.
Selected Reviewer Comments: "This guidance is useful in developing effective state-wide data systems."
Using Data Workshop
Author/Provider: TERC
Resource Type: Service
Cost: $750 per person
Website: http://usingdata.terc.edu/toplevel/home.cfm
Resource Summary: Emphasizes the use of data to help educators take the best advantage of the resources available. The developers announce that: "the project has developed a comprehensive, long-term professional development program and supporting materials designed for data facilitators" (website).
Full Citation: TERC. Using Data Workshops from the Using Data Project. Retrieved on April 24, 2007 from website.
Selected Reviewer Comments: "This service offers sustained professional development to build capacity."
Working Inside the Black Box: Assessment for Learning in the Classroom
Author/Provider: Paul Black, Christine Harrison, Clare Lee, Bethan Marshall, and Dylan Wiliam, Phi Delta Kappan
Resource Type: Knowledge
Cost: Free
Length: 13 pages
Website: http://litd.psch.uic.edu/docs/ForSGLrngEnvAIM/BlackWrkBlBox.pdf
Resource Summary: In their widely read article "Inside the Black Box," Mr. Black and Mr. Wiliam demonstrated that improving formative assessment raises student achievement. Now they and their colleagues report on a follow-up project that has helped teachers change their practice and students change their behavior so that everyone shares responsibility for the students' learning.
Full Citation: Full Citation: Black, P., Harrison, C., Lee, C., Marshall, B., & Wiliam, D. (2004). Working inside the black box: Assessment for learning in the classroom. Phi Delta Kappan. 96 (1),9-21.
Selected Reviewer Comments: "Very useful for practitioners and policy makers." "Theoretically sound and very practical. Administrators and teachers could read this article and do something as a result." "Excellent article to stimulate teaching practice discussions." "Excellent article to use with trainers engaged in training, or practitioners implementing new formative assessment practice." "There seems to be enough depth and breadth to make this a very useful resource. "
Judging student achievement: Why getting the right data matters
Author/Provider: Anderson, S., Fowler, D., & Klein, S. / MPR Inc. & National Center For Educational Achievement
Resource Type: Guidance
Cost: Free
Length: 8 pages
Website: http://dataqualitycampaign.org/files/Tools-Judging_Student_Achievement.pdf
Resource Summary: No Child Left Behind offers a useful framework for thinking about the kinds of data needed to identify students having difficulty meeting standards and to document school progress in closing the achievement gap over time. This issue brief discusses the benefits and questions that can be answered by longitudinal data.
Full Citation: Anderson, S., Fowler, D., & Klein, S. (2005, September). Judging student achievement: Why getting the right data matters (Policy Brief). Washington, DC: MPR Inc. & National Center For Educational Achievement.
Selected Reviewer Comments: "The best communications content I have reviewed." "It would be hard to do a better policy brief than this one." "The length, language, and content were all excellent." "Would recommend to states considering changes to their state data systems."
Formative Assessment
Maximizing the Power of Formative Assessments
Author/Provider: Stiggins, R. & DuFour, R. / Phi Delta Kappan
Resource Type: Knowledge
Cost: Free
Length: 5 pages
Website: http://168.169.25.71/AdminIntraNetSite/Cabinet51409/PDK_StigginsDuFourFormativeAssess.pdf
Resource Summary: Assessments created collaboratively by teams of teachers who teach the same course or grade level represent a powerful tool in effective assessment in professional learning communities. To be effective, these assessments must meet four conditions: clear learning targets, a commitment to standards-based instruction, high-quality assessment, and effective communication.
Full Citation: Stiggins, R. & DuFour, R. (2009). Maximizing the power of formative assessments. Phi Delta Kappan, 90(9), 640-644.
Selected Reviewer Comments: "This article which provides guidance is excellent in its articulation of the different types of assessment that can be used within a school and school system, the importance of each in the continuum of assessment that make up a local assessment system, and the conditions and components necessary to consider and implement these assessment practices." "It ties together a number of ideas and concepts related to formative assessment and makes good connections between the roles various assessments serve in a balanced assessment system." "I found this article useful for those who interact at the practitioner level, to provide motivation and understanding as to how what happens in the classroom has an impact at many levels, and to describe the system in a way that makes all the effort to be in a learning community, to create common assessments, etc. seem more doable and important for students as well as school improvement.” State level educators may consider the article a good read for district or local educators to reinforce the ideas supporting multi-level assessment systems."
Active learning through formative assessment
Author/Provider:Clarke, S. / Richard C. Owen Publishers, Inc.
Resource Type: Product/Tool
Cost: $29.95
Length: 184 pages
Website: http://www.rcowen.com/ProfBks.htm#Active_Learning_Through__Formative_Assessment
Resource Summary: Central to the whole process of using assessment for (and as) learning is the way in which pupils become involved in all learning and assessment processes: the explanations and classroom examples in this book demonstrate why and how to do it. Drawn from across the age range, and all subjects, they exemplify effective learning objectives, clear success criteria, talk partner techniques, effective questioning, quality discussion with pupils, and self- and peer evaluation of work. New themes include how to develop a growth mindset, so that pupils enjoy challenge rather than avoid it for fear of failure; how popular strategies such as thinking skills and building learning power complement formative assessment; advice on current national expectations for summative assessment; and planning with key skills. Shirley also explains how to set up your own action research learning team in an individual school, a cluster of schools or any other educational setting and how best to support classroom teachers in their journey through the culture and practice of formative assessment. Down to earth, practical and direct, this book gives busy teachers the essential 'how to' information they need, with clear principles and theory to underpin the wealth of practical advice and examples.
Full Citation: Clarke, S. (2008). Active learning through formative assessment. Katonah, NY. Richard C. Owen Publishers, Inc.
Selected Reviewer Comments: "I see many situations at all levels of work with clients from SEA to classroom level where this would provide excellent information for discussion and consideration." "The book is well-designed to be useful for individual and group professional development."
Linking Formative Assessment to Scaffolding
Author/Provider: Shepard, L. A.// Educational Leadership
Resource Type: Guidance
Cost: Free
Length: 5 pages
Website: http://www.measuredprogress.org/pd/products/papers/scaffolding.pdf
Resource Summary: Formative assessment and instructional scaffolding are essentially the same thing. Formative assessment uses insights about a learner's current understandings to alter the course of instruction and thus support the development of greater competence. Scaffolding refers to supports that teachers provide the learner during problem solving—in the form of reminders, hints, and encouragement—to ensure successful completion of a task. Four strategies illustrate the strong connection between formative assessment and research on learning: eliciting prior knowledge, providing effective feedback, teaching for transfer of knowledge, and encouraging student self-assessment.
Full Citation: Shepard, L. A. (2005). Linking Formative Assessment to Scaffolding. Educational Leadership, 63(3), 66-70.
Selected Reviewer Comments: “Very helpful to improve thinking about assessment and possible action. This is an outstanding article, written by a top researcher in the field. Extremely useful, concise, and relevant.” “This resource will be helpful in responding to requests for information regarding formative assessment practices linked to teacher instruction designed to improve student knowledge gains.”
Making Benchmark Testing Work
Author/Provider: Herman, J. L., & Baker, E. L.//Educational Leadership
Resource Type: Guidance
Cost: Free
Length: 11 pages
Website: http://www.aacompcenter.org/pdf/10_benchmark_testing.pdf
Resource Summary: Many schools are moving to develop benchmark tests to monitor their students' progress toward state standards throughout the academic year. Benchmark tests can provide the ongoing information that schools need to guide instructional programs and to address student learning problems. The authors discuss six criteria that educators can use to develop, select, or purchase benchmark tests: alignment, diagnostic value, fairness, technical quality, utility, and feasibility. Together, these criteria determine benchmark tests' ability to provide both accurate information about students' progress and useful feedback to improve instruction.
Full Citation: Herman, J. L., & Baker, E. L. (2005). Making Benchmark Testing Work. Educational Leadership, 63(3), 48-54.
Selected Reviewer Comments: “Very clear review of important technical quality aspects of benchmark assessments. The recommendations at the end of the paper are very helpful and should provide a guide for those who are considering purchasing benchmark assessments.” “This article provides excellent guidance on how these [benchmark] assessments should be designed and utilized.”
The Nature and Impact of Teachers: Formative Assessment Practices
Author/Provider:Joan L. Herman, Ellen Osmundson, Carlos Ayala, Stephen Schneider, & Mike Timms. National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing
Resource Type: Knowledge
Cost: Free
Length: 37 pages
Website: http://www.cse.ucla.edu/products/reports/R703.pdf
Resource Summary: Theory and research suggest the critical role that formative assessment can play in student learning. Drawing data from 13 middle school science teachers from a diverse range of schools, this study examined three questions: 1) What was the quality of implementation of a formative assessment science unit in middle school classrooms? 2) What was the quality of teacher feedback provided to students? 3) To what degree did teachers make instructional changes based on the formative assessment results? The research team found the quality of implementation of the formative assessments varied considerably among teachers, that the use of effective feedback to students was surprisingly rare, and that little use was made of the assessment results to modify instruction. Important implications are discussed for the effective use of formative assessments.
Full Citation: Herman, J.L., Osmundson, E., Ayala, C., Schneider, S., & Timms, M. (2006). The nature and impact of teachers' formative assessment practices (CRESST Report 703). Los Angeles: National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing.
Selected Reviewer Comments: "This paper covers a topic that I am very knowledgeable in (both FAST science materials and formative assessment), yet I felt it has some new food for thought to offer readers."
Teachers developing assessment for learning: Impact on student achievement
Author/Provider: Dylan William, Clare Lee, Christine Harrison & Paul Black/ Assessment in Education
Resource Type: Knowledge
Cost: $32.42
Length: 17 pages
Website: http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/caie/2004/00000011/00000001/art00004
Resource Summary: While it is generally acknowledged that increased use of formative assessment (or assessment for learning) leads to higher quality learning, it is often claimed that the pressure in schools to improve the results achieved by students in externally-set tests and examinations precludes its use. This paper reports on the achievement of secondary school students who worked in classrooms where teachers made time to develop formative assessment strategies. A total of 24 teachers (2 science and 2 mathematics teachers, in each of six schools in two LEAs) were supported over a six-month period in exploring and planning their approach to formative assessment. Beginning in September 1999, the teachers put these plans into action with selected classes. In order to compute effect sizes, a measure of prior attainment and at least one comparison group was established for each class (typically either an equivalent class taught in the previous year by the same teacher, or a parallel class taught by another teacher). The mean effect size in favor of the intervention was 0.32.
Full Citation: Wiliam, D., Lee, C., Harrison, C., & Black, P. (2004, March). Teachers developing assessment for learning:Impact on student achievement. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice 11(1), 49-65.
Selected Reviewer Comments: "This resource is highly relevant..." "Very easy to read." "The resource builds nicely on previous work which it also supports."
Tough choices in designing a formative assessment system
Author/Provider: Nancy Sharkey and Richard Murnane/American Journal of Education
Resource Type: Guidance
Cost: $5.00
Length: 17 pages
Website: http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJE/journal/issues/v112n4/112406/brief/112406.abstract.html
Resource Summary: A growing number of school districts in the United States are introducing formative assessment systems to measure student skills in core subjects throughout the year. The underlying logic is that providing teachers with timely information on student skills will enable them to improve instruction and better prepare students to excel on high-stakes, state-mandated tests. This article describes lessons learned from one large urban district's attempts to implement a formative assessment system. Based on interviews with teachers and administrators, the article sheds light on the difficult choices educators face in choosing formative assessments and deciding how to use them.
Full Citation: Sharkey, N. S., & Murnane, R. J. (2006). Tough choices in designing a formative assessment system. American Journal of Education 112(4), 572-588.
Selected Reviewer Comments: "Good language, easy to read." "For a district just beginning or thinking about beginning a formative assessment program, this would be helpful." "Very extensive set of references from very well known people on the topic." "This article describes one school districtís attempts to implement a math formative assessment systemÖthe authors utilize the findings from this qualitative case study to shed light on the challenges educators faced in choosing and implementing formative assessment."
Changing classroom practice: Informative Assessment
Author/Provider:William, D. ASCD
Resource Type: Guidance
Cost: $3.00
Length: 8 pages
Website: ASCD Archived Issues - December/January 2007-2008
Resource Summary: The author contends that research has shown that effective formative assessment has the potential to greatly increase student achievement. In working with schools attempting to implement effective formative assessment, the author and his colleagues have learned that the necessary changes in classroom practice, although often apparently quite modest, are actually difficult to achieve. To enable teachers to improve their formative assessment practices, schools need to provide a new kind of professional development that focuses on changing teachers' actions in the classroom rather than on giving teachers more information. Teacher learning communities—small groups of teachers who meet regularly to explore their practice—provide this kind of support. The article gives practical suggestions for planning and sustaining teacher learning communities.
Full Citation: Wiliam, D. (2007/2008, December/January). Informative Assessment. Educational Leadership, 65(4), 36-42.
Selected Reviewer Comments: "Provides reasonable steps for changing teaching practices and improving student (and teacher) learning.” “Should be a must read for any school doing formative assessment.” “Any teacher or school principal would benefit from reading this article.” “Excellent content, excellent author, excellent writing."
All about accountability/Phony formative assessments: Buyer beware!
Author/Provider:Popham, W. J./Educational Leadership
Resource Type: Knowledge
Cost: Free
Length: 2 pages
Website: ASCD Archived Issues - November 2006
Resource Summary: Defines formative assessment and cautions against the tendency to re-label existing summative assessments as formative.
Full Citation: Popham, W. J. (2006, November). All about accountability/Phony formative assessments: Buyer beware! Educational Leadership, 64(4), 86-87. Retrieved August 1, 2008.
Selected Reviewer Comments: “Useful topic important to guide thinking relative to the use of benchmark or interim assessments for formative assessment purposes.”
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